Part 1
Culture and Myth
Literature is the art of a written work and a well written work achieves a universal appeal. The word ‘literature’ when translated, literally means ‘acquaintance with letters’. It has its origin in the Latin word ‘littera’ which means ‘letter’. It has different meanings depending on the context in which it is used or on the user. It can be applied to any symbolic records, sculptures, and paintings. It deals only with the texts composed of letters and symbols used in a language.
Cyril Connolly in her work “Enemies of Promise” (1938) defines literature as the art of writing something that will be read twice and compares it to journalistic writings which are likely to be read once. Literature is more interesting than facts which attracts the readers more. It is because, a journalist toils hard in collecting the facts for the sake of the readers, but in turn the people never often look into the seriousness of their writing for newspapers. In contrast to journalism, anything that is put forth or suggested in literature is easily conveyed to the readers. Ezra Pound in an article “The ABC of Reading” (1934) has pointed out the same opinion as literature is news that stays news.
As society is becoming diverse day by day, literature also keeps increasing accordingly. It comes out with several grand themes that help the readers to comprehend the diversity that has taken place in society in terms of culture in a better way. This leads to rearranging the ideas of the monolithic value system by the people who are the followers of the ancestors. Rearranging is necessary as these ideas have been misplaced by the present age according to its own convenience.
These kinds of interpretations and change of ideas must be reset as it had been set earlier. The present age must realise the demerits that occur in the change of systems and their ideas. Thus, the writers need mythology, and such has been its entry into the field of literature, irrespective of the literature it deals with. Myths have helped not only literature but other disciplines also. It has been performing the unique role of unifying disciplines with literature.
Mythologies differ in each culture. Those that prevail are true and acceptable. They represent the deepest desires and fears of human beings. They help people in understanding the mysterious and sometimes frightening form of the universal forces such as seasonal changes, fire, lightening, droughts, flood, and death. Throughout the history of human civilisation, these myths have an integral part in the development of human society. They have no cultural boundaries as they exist in all cultural societies. The saga of a myth has been passed on from one generation to another. It is like the traditional stories which usually involve supernatural or imaginary people that embody popular ideas on natural or social phenomena called “myth”.
The word ‘myth’ comes from the Latin word “mythos” and from the greek word “muthos” meaning story. “Muthos” in turn comes from the “mu” meaning to make a sound with the mouth. In simple terms, mythology deals with the study of myths. Myth is one of the elements of human heritage. The myths might have probably originated when people started asking questions about the creation of the world and their role in it. The first “myth-makers” might have been wise old men and women who had a magical talent to explain the natural world who were poetic in nature.
Thus, these myths became a mask for truth, either magical or unrealistic. Regarding the characters, if the hero of the myth happens to be a human being, it is usually not called a myth but a legend. If the stories are about supernatural beings like Gods which appear partly to be a myth, it is a folktale. Myths generally have heroes and other characters who posses’ superpowers, creations, curses and so on.
The power of the concept of myth has gained through the following adaptability of several common ideas that are used in the analysis of social and political changes as:
1.To explain the creation of the world
2. To explain natural phenomena
3.To give story form to ancient religious practices
4. To explain moral lessons and values
5. To explain history
6.To express, as dreams do the deepest fears and hopes of the human race.
When myths are discussed, the term that surfaces to one’s mind is the “symbol”. In a broader sense, a symbol may represent anything which is of great significance. M.H. Abrahams in his A Glossary of Literary terms points out that “this term is applied only to a word or phrases that signify an object or event in turn signifying, or has a reference, beyond itself (311).”
A symbol may signify anything. For example, ‘the cross’ symbolises salvation, purity, etc. Such significance occurred only after the crucifixion of Christ. This significance reveals that any symbol may have a significance of its own. Accordingly, every myth has its own symbols and each symbol signifies a single meaning or many meanings. Sometimes a symbol is confused with an allegory, but they differ from each other. Coleridge in his The Stateman’s Manual (1852) and Goethe in his Maxims and Reflection have pointed out that these two are different. An allegory may have a specific meaning by itself. As they both point out, allegory signifies an image and concept whereas a symbol signifies only an image that remains indefinite.
A symbol is the most important and dominating feature in a myth. Symbols are mostly the images of Gods, evil spirits, passions, power and so on to create such symbols; myths have made an extensive use of animals. Almost all the animals are used as symbols to denote power, faith, fear, etc. Some animals like whales, snakes, peacocks, eagles, horses, and elephants symbolise many things. A peacock symbolises pride; an eagle symbolises heroic endeavors; a snake symbolises power, bliss, and fear.
Animals are also worshiped by many people. From the pre-modern societies, animal worship has become a common phenomenon. People began worshiping animals, because of myths created by ancestors. In myths when threatened by evil powers, Gods usually took the form of animals to hide themselves from those spirits. Further the ancestors created such myths to save themselves from dangers. From that time people started to worship animals and they also formed animal cults that represent Gods.
When such myths are discussed, naturally several superstitions began evolving around them and gained prominence because, myths are the basic belief of the ancestors, created for a practical cause, which in turn have become topsy-turvy. Ironically, these beliefs have become superstitious beliefs.
Many writers have used these myths and superstitions in their writings. Goethe considers superstition to be the poetry of life. Though most of the people have understood the meaning of myths, yet these basic beliefs have come out in the form of superstitions. These points have been highlighted by some writers in their works and they try to make the people look at mythology in a better way.
Myths have both positive and negative symbols. Mythologies of India and Australia treat them positively, whereas some mythologies of Greece and Christianity consider them as negative symbols. In Greek mythology, snakes are treated as evil spirits and as the destroyers of the lives of people. In Christian mythology, the snake is represented as the messenger of Satan sent to destroy human life through the ‘fall of man from the Paradise’. In Australian mythology, snakes are seen as protectors, destroyer of law breakers and so on. In contrast to the Australian Aborigines, Hindu mythology worships them. Such are the symbols of snakes that are treated differently in different cultures.
Such notion about snakes that prevail among different countries are discussed in the project. These serpents are given a significant place in many mythologies. They form an integral part in almost all languages and cultures. They are used to represent many symbols of human life. Further, this thesis also tries to point out the beliefs that have turned out to be superstitions using the ancestral mythical creatures and the stories regarding them of both India and Australia. The influence of these stories to the present superstitious beliefs, are satirised by several writers in their literary works that are found in different languages.
Alexander Wyclif Reed (1908-1979) of Australia in his book Aboriginal Myths, Legends and Fables (1993) has made an attempt in rewriting the Aboriginal stories making them easier to understand. He has written many books on Aboriginal tales and their legends. His book tries to bring home the idea of the mystic bond that existed between the Aboriginal people, their environment, and their spiritual life of the Dreamtime. Some stories of Reed about snakes have been taken for comparison. Indian writers have also made use of these myths in their works.
Girish Karnad’s Nagamandala is one such work. He found out a new approach when other writers wanted to choose a subject that looked entirely alien to the manifestation of the native soil. The approach drew historical and mythological sources to tackle the contemporary themes.
Similar to this are many writers like R.K.Narayan and Kushwant Singh, Tamil writers like Tamizhselvi, etc. They have written some works with snake as their central role of attraction. These writers highlight the basic beliefs and also the prevailing myths about snakes and snake worship. The knowledge of the scientific representation of a snake is essential in order to go deep into the beliefs of the ancestors.
“Serpent” is a word of Latin origin (serpens, serpentis) which is commonly used in specifically mythical or religious context, signifying a snake that is to be regarded not as mundane natural phenomenon nor as an object of scientific zoology, but as a bearer of some symbolic values. A snake is a powerful totem animal, the symbol of death and rebirth and the symbol of transformation. It might well be the mascot for the new age. It has been the animal or the symbol of the ancient men and ancestors of some cultures.
According to the investigation of Sir James Frazer in Comparative Religion and those of Sigmund Freud in Psychology, though extreme, they have shown that human beings tend to use a wider symbolism, even in thinking itself, to cover ideas they avoid out of fear. Snakes are used to symbolise many aspects of human life. If a snake bites a person in a dream, it is a good sign and symbolises self-revelation. A person’s dream has a purpose in it. To find out the meanings of these dreams, one needs to understand the symbols. The symbols give different meaning to the dreams. Myths play a major role even in the dreams of people in the name of symbols. Hence the belief lies deep in everyone’s life as an outcome of every culture.
In this context, this article focuses on the role, functions, and the significance of mythology in the lives of native people of Australia and India and how the role of mythology has been misinterpreted through misconceptions and misunderstandings by some people. It points out how in spite of these myths acting as a yardstick in leading a moral life, people look at these myths only in a literal sense. The article hence reinforces the need to study the deeper implications and significance of myths. People gradually step into certain superstitious beliefs that unknowingly affect and shake the basic beliefs of the natives and unstabilise the structure that binds a concrete society. Some writers are aware of these issues and try to stabilise them through their writings.
An introduction to both Indian and Australian mythologies is beneficial before analysing customs and beliefs. Both the countries have their own reasons for the creation of such mythologies. Indian mythology is not only 1200 B.C old but is also considered to be vast. It is one of the richest elements of Indian culture standing unique in the world. There are infinite number of stories that are passed on from one generation to another through words or scriptures. These stories form the background of Indian mythology, acting as a medium to people to inculcate an interest in Indian culture and to impart values. These stories generally convey subtle facts and maxims to guide people in leading a moral life.
Since storytelling is an easy way to approach people, these facts and rules are conveyed easily. There are also stories to denote the same fact. Hence, each version of a story is correct in its own way. The origin of Indian mythology has been from Rig Veda, the old mythological heritage. During this time, people had faith in whatever they wanted to do. They saw God in forms such as –Agni, Vayu and Surya. They relied mostly on abstractions, though it was illusive and in a due course these Gods were given substantial shapes and characters. The two epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were compiled in the late Vedic period.
They gave rise to the concept of Trimurthi the union of Ani, Vayu and Surya who in Hindu mythology are named as Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. This concept has become concrete in Indian mythology which is similar to Chritianity’s trinity-the father, the son and the Holy Spirit.
There are four ages in Indian mythology, comprising Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Brahmainic. Om or Aum is the essence of Hinduism which denotes oneness with the supreme, both physically and spiritually. This is the first created sacred sound from which all other sounds were formed. This sound in the Upanishads does not only denote origination but also desolution, including past, present, and future.
The idea of ‘atma’ or the soul plays an integral part in Hinduism. Sacrifice and performing penance have been the chief forms of worship. The concept of performing penance with so many years of deep meditation, secluded from the world becomes the topic of interest. The Hindus believe more in Lord Vishnu the preserver and Lord Shiva the destroyer than in Lord Brahma the creator.
Further, there are many creatures symbolizing different kinds of emotions and also as the vehicles of different Gods. Garuda, the King of birds is the vehicle Lord Vishnu, the peacock and the snake are the symbols of Lord Muruga and so on. From 900 B.C to 500 B.C, as Aryan culture commonly named as the Brahmanic Age gradually dominated Hinduism. When the concept of ‘atma’ came into Hinduism, the Brahmanic caste asserted that Gods need human priests to become powerful. Such was the arrival of the Brahmanic Age that celebrated pride in being the followers of Gods.
From 500 B.C to 100 the age of Bhuddhism and Jainism came into being and dominated Hinduism. After several years, the epics the Ramayana and Mahabharata were born and brought back the life of Hinduism. There are many stories that speak about Buddha how he acquired knowledge and strength to live a life of eternity in a spiritual way.
Thus, all the ages are e considered more powerful and they complement each other with their own myths. But it is noteworthy that all these ages talk about the oneness of human beings with God in different ways.
Australia is a multicultural society comprising people from all around the world. It always had a mixture of cultures. The most eminent Aboriginal and Torres Strait occupied the islands between Australia and Papua New Guinea, which is now called the Torres Strait. These Indigenous people naves many tribal communities with different languages, cultural and traditional practices. It is believed that before 1788, there existed more than 700 languages within an estimated population of 7,50,000 people. Today the indigenous people comprise 2% as estimated within the population of 410000 in Australia.
Due to the effects of colonisation, the people were removed from the lands, nativity and their sole identity of culture and languages. Early Australia was completely different from the present Australia. Those indigenous people had no facilities even to travel from place to place like carriages and so on. It had been an unspoilt land where people respected their environment, nature, and everything around them.
Since they lived the lives of hunters and gatherers of lives, they ensured that they had enough food for future use and made sure that the food was never wasted. Even women and children were trained to hunt smaller animals and to collect fruits. In order to maintain the fragile environment and due to seasonal variations, they kept roaming through the land. They also made it a point not to hunt at the same place and stored some food whenever they went. The places where these scattered are converted to cities, towns and so on with a mixture of contemporary and traditional thoughts and practices still existing.
The indigenous cultures of Australia are considered the oldest of all cultures in the world for, they were able to change accordingly. These changes were due to the influence of other country people entering their land for trade. They exchanged not only goods but also songs and dances within their own indigenous people. Though they were adaptable to change and were culturally strong, some indifferences of Europeans affected them resulting in colonisation.
Archaeological evidences show that indigenous cultures have changed many times accordingly to cope up with the changes of the environment. They were able to survive and struggle against their changes made in their culture by Europeans since 1788. Even before Europeans influence, the indigenous people had contact with other cultures like Dutch, Portuguese navigators and traders in sharing ideas and skills. These influences can be seen in the rock bark paintings.
The complexity and richness of aboriginal cultures were not clear for the early colonists and hence their government policies were against the interests of the aboriginal people. And they have had profits from the labour of these aboriginals. Many forms and cattle came into their nation without realizing how the indigenous people treat their lands. Their land that was meant for food and spirituality was considered a land of trade alone. Further the colonists even prevented them from speaking their own languages, which resulted in the decrease of native languages from 700 to 250 at present. Yet there are traces of native languages in Australia now.
When it comes to spirituality, there are many forms in it with different practices and influences by the impact of colonialism, both past and present. There are some indigenous people who believe in the cultures introduced in Australia by the Europeans. Yet, their religious beliefs derived from a scene of belonging to the land, sea and to nature and one’s culture. Their form and expression of spirituality differ from the Aboriginal and the Torres Strait Islanders. The Aboriginal spirituality was based on the stories of the stories of dreaming whereas the Torres Straight Islanders ‘spirituality was based on the stories of Tagai.
Thus, between the two Aboriginal people’s lives are found much in detail than Tagai. It is because of the significance. So, W.E.H.Stanner , an Australian Anthropologist says, ‘the idea of a sign is thoroughly aboriginal…..’ Likewise art was central to the lives of Aboriginal people and was a product of their Dreaming. Thus, by practicing art singing, dancing, sculpting, and painting. Aboriginal people could assess the dreaming.
Thus, dreaming had different meaning for different Aboriginal people. It being complex network of knowledge , faith and practices derived from stories of creation , dominates all spiritual and physical aspects of Aboriginal people setting out the structures of society and rules of behaviour in order to maintain the life of the land.
The Dreamtime governed the way people lived and how they should behave and if rules were flouted, they were punished. The ‘Dreamtime’ or dreaming is often used to describe the time when the earth, and the animals and the human were created. The dreaming is also used by individuals to refer to their own dreaming or their community’s dreaming. The dreaming world was the old time of the ancestors. They emerged from the earth at the time of creation. Time began in the world the moment these supernatural beings were born out of their own eternity.
The stories tell that the earth was a flat surface, in darkness, dead silent world. Unknown forms of life were asleep, below the surface of the land. Then the supernatural ancestor beings broke through the crust of the earth from below with tumultuous force. The sun rose out of the ground. The land received light for the first time. The supernatural or totemic they resembled creatures or plants and were half human, they moved across the baren surface of the world. They travelled hunted and fought and changed the form of the land. During their journeys they created the landscapes, the mountains, the rivers, the trees, the waterholes, plains, and sand hills. They made all the celestial bodies, The sun, the moon, and the stars. Then wearied from all the activities the mythical creatures sank back into the earth and returned to their state of sleep.
Such stories help the people to know the origin of the ancestral spirits and where they went to rest. These are the explanations to hoe people came to Australia and the links between the groups throughout Australia. In essence, the dreaming comes from the land. The Aboriginal society people did not own the land, but it was a part of them and part of their duty to respect mother earth.
Dreaming stories vary throughout Australia and there are different versions on the same theme. Thus, in more recent times there are stories telling the arrival of the first European ships are stories about trading with Macassan fisherman in northern Australia. Tagai is a collection of stories which is the cornerstone of the Torres Straight Islanders’ as sea people sharing a common way of life. Tagai enables orderliness in the world and ensures placement for everything.
Both the Aboriginal and the Torres Strait Islanders have a complex system of family relations where each person knows their kin and their land. This extension of family relationships formed the core of indigenous kinship systems enabling transmission of culture from one to the other and also in the organization of society. Story telling in indigenous Australia is still an important way of passing information to people. These stories also in various forms such as music, plays poetry and books keep the traditions and heritage of indigenous Australia alive and also within the wider community paving the way for clearer understanding and awareness among people.
The Aboriginals believe in two forms of time: two parallel streams of activity. One is the daily objective activity and the other is an infinite spiritual cycle called the dream time which is more real than the reality itself. It was believed that some people of unusual spiritual powers had contact with dream time. They also believed the idea of eternity in the dreaming and it bound the life of the individual even before the beginning of his life and continued to exist even after his death.
Thus, the aborigines believed in the beings while the Europeans believed these cultural ancestors to be magical. When observed deeply, these stories would have many aspects of life to be realised.